Emmaus-Nicopolis
Old Testament Period (before 167 BC)
Emmaus is not mentioned in biblical or other ancient texts until the Hasmonean period. An important source of information on the history of the Ayalon Valley before the arrival of the tribes of Israel in the Promised Land is found in the epistolary archives of the pharaohs Amenhotep III and Amenhotep IV (15th-14th centuries BC), discovered at El-Amarna (Egypt). These texts reveal the dominant role of the city of Gezer in this region and also mention the town of Ayalon. Gezer (Gazer) and Ayalon (Ajalon, Aijalon) are also mentioned in the Bible, as is the village of Shaalbim (Shaalabbin), located in the northern part of the Ayalon Valley.
The Bible tells of an important battle that took place between the Hebrews and the Canaanites around 1200 BC, shortly after the arrival of the tribes of Israel in the Promised Land. The Israelite army, led by Joshua, marched throughout the night from Gilgal to aid its Hivite allies in the city of Gibeon, which was under attack by five Amorite kings. Joshua won the battle near the walls of Gibeon, pursued the Amorites, and inflicted a crushing defeat on them on the way to Beth-Horon. In the course of the pursuit, the Israelites reached the valley of Ayalon (Book of Joshua, ch. 10):
Painting by Esteban March, 17th c.
“Then spoke Joshua to the Lord in the day when the Lord delivered up the Amorites before the children of Israel; and he said in the sight of Israel: ‘Sun, stand thou still upon Gabaon; and thou, Moon, in the valley of Ayalon’. And the sun stood still, and the moon stayed, until the nation had avenged themselves of their enemies.”
Joshua 10: 12-13, KJV , see the Hebrew text here
Joshua divided the Promised Land between the twelve tribes of Israel, and the territory where Emmaus is today was given to the tribe of Dan:
“And the seventh lot came out for the tribe of the children of Dan according to their families. And the coast of their inheritance was Zorah, and Eshtaol, and Irshemesh, And Shaalabbin, and Ajalon, and Jethlah, And Elon, and Thimnathah, and Ekron, And Eltekeh, and Gibbethon, and Baalath, And Jehud, and Beneberak, and Gathrimmon, And Mejarkon, and Rakkon, with the border before Japho.”
Joshua 19: 40-46, KJV, see the Hebrew text here
The city of Ir-Shemesh ("City of the Sun"), mentioned in this text, was identified by some scholars as Emmaus, basing, in particular, on one of the Septuagint manuscripts, the Codex Vaticanus, which renders Ir-Shemesh as Polis Samaus, see the Greek text here. Modern researchers do not share this view. See: Hadrian Reland, Palestina ex monumentis veteribus illustrata, Trajecti Batavorum (Utrecht), 1714, v. II, pp. 656-657 (see here); Edward Robinson, Researches in Palestine, Mount Sinai and Arabia Petrae, v. III, London, 1841, p.19, footnote 6 (see here); Vincent & Abel, Emmaüs, sa Baslique, son histoire, Paris, 1932, p.p. 285-286, 412-413 (see here).
The tribe of Dan did not succeed in conquering the valley of Ayalon, having come up against the military alliance of the Canaanite cities of Gezer and Gath, which is mentioned in the texts of el-Amarna :
"And the Amorites forced the children of Dan into the mountain: for they would not suffer them to come down to the valley:"
Judges 1: 34, KJV
As a result, a large part of the tribe of Dan moved to the north of the country, while the tribe of Ephraim continued its efforts to capture the valley:
And it came to pass, when Israel was strong, that they put the Canaanites to tribute, and did not utterly drive them out. Neither did Ephraim drive out the Canaanites that dwelt in Gezer; but the Canaanites dwelt in Gezer among them... But the Amorites would dwell in mount Heres in Aijalon, and in Shaalbim: yet the hand of the house of Joseph prevailed, so that they became tributaries."
Judges 1: 28-29, 35, KJV
In the first half of the 12th century B.C. the Philistines, apparently from the Aegean islands, conquered the southern Mediterranean coast of the Holy Land. Archaeological evidence suggests that in the late 12th century BC, the Philistines advanced northeast and subdued the city of Gezer. The Philistines' attempts to penetrate further east and north were opposed by the Israelites, who sought to extend their conquests southwest to the plain of Shephelah. Battles were faught in the territories of Ephraim, Benjamin, and Judah. In the mid-11th century B.C., after the Israelites were defeated at the Battle of Aphek (1 Samuel 4:1–2), the Philistines succeeded in gaining control of the mountainous region of the tribe of Benjamin.
In the second half of the 11th century BC, the Israelite monarchy was established and King Saul made considerable efforts to repel the assaults of the Philistines. Saul's first major battle against the Philistines, was fought around 1025 BC at Michmas (Michmash), see: 1 Samuel 13-14. The Israelites succeeded in driving the Philistines from the mountains to the plain of Shephelah. They pursued the Philistines as far as the Valley of Ayalon:
"So the Lord saved Israel that day: and the battle passed over unto Bethaven... And they smote the Philistines that day from Michmash to Aijalon."
1 Samuel 14:23, 31a, KJV
Saul's kingdom probably included the city of Ayalon and the adjacent part of the valley, while Gezer remained in the hands of the Philistines. A proof of the Israelite presence in the valley of Ayalon at this time is found in the fact that Eliahba the Shaalbonite, i.e., an inhabitant of Shaalbim, was mentioned is mentioned in the list of David's valiant men in 2 Samuel 23:32 (cf. 1 Chron. 11:33). Throughout David's reign (ca. 1000 to 967 BC), the valley of Ayalon continued to be divided between Israel and the Philistines:
"And David did so, as the Lord had commanded him; and smote the Philistines from Geba until thou come to Gazer."
2 Samuel 5:25, KJV
Only during Solomon's reign (ca. 965 BC) did the city of Gezer come under Israelite control as a result of a military alliance between Israel and Egypt, sealed by Solomon's marriage to an Egyptian princess:
"For Pharaoh king of Egypt had gone up, and taken Gezer, and burnt it with fire, and slain the Canaanites that dwelt in the city, and given it for a present unto his daughter, Solomon's wife."
1 Kings 9:16, KJV
Solomon rebuilt the city of Gezer, making it one the main fortresses of his kingdom (1 Kings 9:17), to serve as an advanced stronghold against the Philistines. After Solomon's death, the valley of Ayalon became a part of the kingdom of Judah.
After the return of the Jews from exile in Babylon (late 6th century BC), the Ayalon Valley was incorporated into the Persian province of Judea (Yehud Medinata).
Prior to this period, the only road linking Jaffa to Jerusalem passed through Beth-Horon, along the northern edge of the Ayalon valley. In Persian times, another road appeared, crossing the valley in the vicinity of Emmaus. (See M. Fischer, B. Isaac, I. Roll, Roman Roads in Judaea II, Oxford, 1996, pp. 326 ff).
At the beginning of the 2nd century B.C., the Seleucid rulers attached the city of Gezer to Idumea, and the Emmaus region found itself at the western end of the province of Judea. The Hellenistic authorities took numerous measures to ensure the safety of travellers on the road between Emmaus and Jerusalem. It is to this period (early 2nd century BC) that the first archaeological traces of a fortified village of Emmaus date back, discovered on the hill of al-Aqed in Park Canada (Ayalon), see here : H. Hizmi, M. Haber, and E. Aharonovich, From the Maccabees to Bar Kokhba: Evidence of Fortification and Revolt at Khirbet el-'Aqd. The Results of the Renewed 2012 Excavations, in: New Studies in the Archaeology of Jerusalem and its Region, vol. VII, 2013, pp. 6-24, see here.